Post Gupta Period

Post Gupta Period

image source : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Gupta_dynasty

Guptas

• Information about their history through inscriptions and coins.
• Chandragupta was followed by Samudragupta.
• Samudragupta, Gupta ruler (1700 years ago, i.e. AD 300). Harisena was his court poet.
• Chandragupta, his father, was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of maharaj- adhiraja, a title that Samudragupta also used.
• “Prashasti” = inscription ‘in praise of’. Prashasti about Samudragupta was inscribed on the Asokan pillar at Allahabad (Prayag).
• Four different kinds of rulers in different parts of India/Nepal/Srilanka either surrendered to him or made alliances. (Eg: Aryavartha, Dakshinapatha, gana sanghas etc).
• Main centers of Guptas: Prayag (Allahabad, UP), Ujjain (Avanti, MP) and Pataliputra (Patna, Bihar).
• Samudragupta’s son = Chandragupta II. Kalidasa and Aryabhata adorned his court. He overcame the last Sakas.

Vardhana or Pushyabhuti Dynasty – 550 AD – 647 AD

The Pushyabhuti dynasty was founded at Thaneswar by Pushyabhuti probably towards the beginning of 6th century.

Pushyabhuti were the feudatories of the Guptas but has assumed independence after the Hun invasions 

The first important ruler of the dynasty Prabhakaravardhana – 580 – 605 AD

Prabhakaravardhana was succeeded by his elder Rajyavardhana – 605 – 606 AD

Rajyavardhana had to face problems from the day of succession to the throne. 

Grahavarman the Maukhari ruler of Kannauj and husband of Rajyashri was murdered by Deva Gupta who in alliance with Shashanka now occupied Kannauj and imprisoned Rajyashri 

Rajyavardhana therefore undertook a campaign against Deva Gupta and killed him but he was killed by Shashanka in 606 AD 

Rahyashri escaped into the forest of Central India 

Harshavardhana & Harshacharita – 606 – 647 AD

After the killing of Rajyavardhana his younger brother Harshavardhana also known as Siladitya ascended the Pushyabhuti throne in 606 AD and from this year started Harsha Era 

He belonged to Pushyabhuti Dynasty when Gupta dynasty was fading.

After ascending the throne Harsha firs rescued his widowed sister Rahyashri from the Vindhyan forest where she was going to throw herself into fire

Harsha drove out Shashanka from Kannauj who had occupied it after killing of Rayavardhana. He not only unified Kannauj with Thaneswar but also made it his new capital which made him the most powerful king of North India 

Harshavardhana defeated Dhruvasena II the Maitraka ruler of Vallabhi 

His court poet, Banabhatta, wrote his biography, the Harshacharita, in Sanskrit.

Xuan Zang, spent a lot of time at Harsha’s court and left a detailed account of what he saw.

Harsha took over the kingdom of Kanauj, and then led an army against the ruler of Bengal.

Although he was successful in the east, and conquered both Magadha and Bengal, he was not as successful elsewhere.

He tried to cross the Narmada to march into the Deccan, but was stopped by a ruler belonging to the Chalukya dynasty, Pulakeshin II.

He died in 647 AD

Harsha does not appear to have any heir o his throne which was usurped after his death by his minister maned Arunashva 

Harsha governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas did except that this administration had become more feudal and decenralised.

States of the Deccan 

• The Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pulakeshin
• The Pallavas and Chalukyas were the most important ruling dynasties in south India during this period.
• The kingdom of the Pallavas around their capital, Kanchipuram, to the Kaveri delta, while that of the Chalukyas [Aihole, the capital] was centred on the Raichur Doab, between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra.
• The Pallavas and Chalukyas frequently raided one another’s lands which were prosperous ones.
• The best-known Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin II. We know about him from a prashasti, composed by his court poet Ravikirti.
• Ultimately, both the Pallavas and the Chalukyas gave way to new rulers belonging to the Rashtrakuta and Chola dynasties.
• Land revenue remained important for these rulers, and the village remained the basic unit of administration
• There were military leaders who provided the king with troops whenever he needed them. These men were known as samantas.
• The inscriptions of the Pallavas mention a number of local assemblies. These included the sabha, which was an assembly of Brahmin land owners.
• And the nagaram was an organization of merchants.
• The Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian noticed the plight of those who were treated as untouchables by the high and mighty.
• The history of the region south of the Vindhyas between 300 and 750 A.D. constitutes a water-shed. After the collapse of the Satvahanas, Ikshvakus rose to power in the Krishna-Guntur region. 
• They were supplanted by the Pallavas. 
• In northern Maharashtra and Vidharba the Satvahanas were succeeded by the Vakatakas. 
• The Chalukyas
• The end of the Vakatakas almost synchronized with the rise of the Chalukyas in the Deccan. 
• The Chalukyas began with a base in northern Mysore at Vatapi or Badami. From there they moved northwards and annexed the former kingdom of the Vakatakas which was centred around Nasik and the upper Godavari. 
• Pulakesin I(550-566) was the real founder of the Chalukya dynasty. He was succeeded by his son Kirtivarman I. 
• The most notable king of the dynasty was Pulakesin II (609-642 A.D.). A long inscription on the walls of a Jaina tample at Aihole dated 643 A.D. gives an account of his reign. 
• He defeated the Kadambas of Banavasi, the Gangas of Mysore and the Moriyas of Northern Konkan in the South. 
• From the Aihole inscription and Hiuen Tsang’s account we come to know that Pulakesin II checked the forces of Harshavardhan on the banks of the Narmada river. His first expedition against the Pallava Kingdom was a complete success. 
• He defeated the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman and occupied the territory lying between the mouths of Krishna and Godavari and placed them under his brother Vishnuvardhana as governor. This was the beginning of the eastern Chalukyas or the Chalukyas of Vengi. 
• However, the second expedition of Pulakesin II against the Pallavas ended in failure. 
• The Pallava king Narasimhavarman I(630-668 A.D.) occupied the Chalukyan capital Vatapi and Pulakesin II was probably killed. 
• However, Vikramaditya I, the son of Pulakesin II was successful in re-establishing his authority over the whole kingdom. He inflicted a crushing defeat on Pallavas and captured the Pallava capital Kanchi. 
• The Chalukyan king Vikramaditya II is said to have overrun Kanchi three times. In 740 A.D. he completely routed the Pallavas. Thus the Pallava supremacy ended in the south. 
• The most notable event of his reign is the repulsion of the invasion of the Arabs of south Gujarat. The last Chalukyan ruler was defeated by one of their feudatories, Dantidurga. He founded a new dynasty known as the Rastrakuta dynasty.

Pallavas of Kanchi – 575 – 897 AD

• They in turn, were followed by the Chalukyas of Badami. After two centuries they were overthrown by their feudatories, the Rashtrakutas in 757 A.D.
• During the period review, the region south of the Vindhyas witnessed the march of Brahmanism.
• In early stages, extensive Buddhist monuments came into existence. 
• A little later Jainism came to prevail in Karnataka. And the peninsula, as a whole saw the emergence of a stone temple for Shiva and Vishnu in Tamil Nadu under the Pallavas, and in Karnataka under the chalukyas of Vadami. 
• In a way, south India ceased to be the land of megaliths in early 4th century A.D.
• Along with religion, the language of the rulers and the literate class witnessed a transformation. 
• Sanskrit became the official language of the peninsula.

Pallavas Art 

• Pallavas began the Dravida style of temple architecture which reached culmination under the rule of Cholas 
• The Pallavas also contributed to the development of Sculpture in south India 
• The Pallavas sculpture is indebted largely to the Buddhist tradition
• It is more monumental and linear in form thus avoiding the typical ornamentation of the Deccan sculpture

CHALUKYA-PALLAVA CONFLICT

The Chalukya-Pallava war began with Pulkasin II and ended with the collapse of both the dynasties significantly, the power that rose thereafter, the Rushtrakutas and the Cholas, continued the same sort of struggle. 

This was because the Chalukya-Pallava struggled was to a great extent determined by the geographical location of the Chalukya and Pallavas kingdoms.

After the first bout was over, the Pallavas avenged their defeat during the days of Narasimhavarman I. He captured the lost territories. He was assisted by the king of Ceylon. 

He entered the capital of Vadami in 642 A.D. and assumed the title of Vatapikonda, that is, the conqueror or Vatapi.

After that, for the next twelve years there was a respite; the Pallavas were involved in naval wars while supporting the Ceylonese kings, and the Chalukyas were troubled by their feudatories, 

After the Chalukyan house was set in order in 655, they re-occupied the territories lost to the Pallavas. This was the third phase. 

There was a rift in the Chalukyan royal family. 

Taking advantage of this, the Pallavas once again entered Vadami. Details of relating to this campaign are to be found in the Pallavas grant found near Karachi. This was the fourth phase.

The fifth phase started when the Chalukyas and the Ganges united in 731 to attack the Pallavas. The reigning Pallavas king was killed and Kanchi was occupied. 

Later, the council of ministers chose Nandi Varman II.

In the last phase the ball was in the court of Pallavas. 

At this time, the neighbors of the Pallavas in the south, that is, the Pandyas, Joined the conflict. 

The Pandyas of Madura were not well disposed towards the Pallavas. 

In the meantime the Chalukyas were threatened by the Arabs, the latter already being in occupation of Sing. While the Chalukyas were engrossed in the threat from the north, one of their feudatories Dantidurga, broke away from but they, too, within a century ment their end, the last of the Pallavas was assassinated by the son of a feudatory.

Cholas

• The emergence of the imperial Cholas during the 9th century marked a climax in the history of south India. 
• It was after the decline of the Pallavas that the Cholas came into prominence. Vijayalaya was the founder of the Chola dynasty. In 850 A.D. 
• Vijayalaya defeated the Pallavas and captured Tanjore. His son Adityachola I defeated the Pallava Aparajita about 903 A.D. and occupied a greater portion of the Pallava kingdom. 
• Aditya’s son Parantaka I enhanced the prestige of the dynasty by defeating the Pandya rular Rajasimha and captured Madurai. But he was routed by the Rastrakuta ruler Krishna III. 
• Parantaka II defeated the Rastrakutas and wrested Tondaimandalam. The conflict gave a set back to the dynasty from which they could not recover for quite some time.

The prestige of this dynasty was regained by Rajaraja I. He defeated the Chera, Pandyas and also Chalukyas of Vengi. He annexed Mysore and Tanjore to his empire. He possessed a powerful navy. He also built a beautiful temple at Tanjore. He was succeeded by his son Rajendra (1015-1035). With his naval authority, Rajendra exercised control over Andaman, Nicobar and Malaya. Rajendra was succeeded by his son Rajadhiraja. 

• He was the last able ruler of the dynasty. Last of the Chola ruler Rajendra III was defeated by the Pandya ruler Jain Varman and his territory was annexed. Thus the Chola dynasty came to an end.
• The whole Chola Empire was divided into mandalam or provinces. 
• Further, they were divided into valanadudus(divisions), nadus(districts), and kurrams(villages). 
• Village was the basic unit of administration. 
• The Cholas were best known for their local self-government at village level. 

Each village had an assembly to look after the affairs of the village. We hear of three assemblies called the Ur, Sabha and Mahasabha and Nagaram. Ur was the general assembly of the village consisting of the tax paying residents. 

Sabha or Mahasabha consisted of a gathering of the adult persons of Brahmana village called brahmadeya village. Nagaram was the assembly of the merchants and found more commonly in the trading centers. There was a close contact between the central authority and the village assemblies

Society 

A number of important changes took place in Indian society in the post Gupta period. The land grants paved the way for feudal development in India from the fifth century onwards. The peasants were asked to remain in the land granted to the beneficiaries. 

The villages transferred to the grantees were called sthana-jana-sahita and janata samriddha. All these worked for a close economy which contributed to the decline of trade and commerce in the post Gupta period.

The growth of the feudal society in India had far reaching effects. It weakened the position of the king and made him more dependent on the feudal chiefs. Most of them maintained their own military forces. The domination of the feudal chiefs also weakened the village self-government.

This period witnessed the ascendancy of varnashramadharma. 

Hiuen Tsang writes about the existence of four varnas in the society. 

Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang inform us about the existence of many sub castes. 

The position of women seems to have suffered a further decline during this period. 

Sati and dowry were prevalent. As for marriage, the smriti writers state that girls were to be given away by their parents between the ages of six and eight years. In general women were distrusted. They were to be kept in seclusion. Their lives were dominated by the male relations like father, brother, husband and son. However, various stories point to the skill of princesses in the fine arts, especially in painting and in music.

Economy

By now you have devoloped and idea about the society of the post Gupta period. 

During the post Harsha period the literary and inscriptional evidences show the advanced state of agriculture, trade and economy. The early Arab writers also refer to the fertility of the soil and the rich cultivation. Literature like Abhidhanaratnamala mentions that the soil was classified variously as fertile, barren, desert, excellent etc. It is also mentioned that different kinds of fields were selected for different classes of crops.

In the field of industry the oldest one is that of textile. The profession of weavers, dyers, tailors etc. are mentioned by the contemporary literature. Working in metal was also very popular during that period. Some centres of metal industry were famous. Saurastra (Gujarat) was famous for its bell metal industry while Vanga (Bengal) was known for its tin industry.

The trade with South East Asia increased enormously during this period. The Arab, Chinese and Indian sources mention the flow of trade between east and west via India. Indian exports consisted of cotton, sandal wood, camphor, metals, precious and semi-precious stones, pearls etc. In the list of imported items, horses were the most important. The best breed of horses were imported from Central and Western Asia.

The Shrenis or guilds played an important role during that period. Contemporary inscriptions mention not only about the different classes of guilds, but also their constitution and functions.

Buddhism

Buddhism had lost its popularity and was limited to a few places. Towards the close of the fifth century A.D. the Huna invasion dealt a death blow to Buddhism in North- Western India. 

The Hunas destroyed Buddhist temples and monasteries and massacred the Buddhist monks.

The effects of Huna invasion can be clearly perceived from the account of HiuenTsang. When Hiuen Tsang visited India (629-645 A.D.) 

Harshavardhan’s patronage of Buddhism gave a temporary lease of life to the decaying religion in North India. The facts recorded by him are sufficient to show that Buddhism had lost its strong hold except in Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.

Hinayana and Mahayana. 

In Mahayana form of Buddhism Buddha was worshipped as god. 

In the post Gupta period, this worship became more and more elaborate with devotional songs and was accompanied by rites and ceremonies. 

Tantricism had a great hold on Mahayana form of Buddhism. 

Tantricism advocated that a person could attain supernatural power through secret rituals and by uttering magical words called mantras. This encouraged superstition. 

The association of Buddhism with magical cults was a confusing development, since much of its original ethical teaching was now submerged in rituals.

In South India Kanchi was a great centre of Buddhism. The Chola kings also gave donations to the Buddhist. In the north, the Pala rulers of Bengal were great patron of Buddhism. But with the decline of the Palas in the later part of the twelfth century, Buddhism also declined in Bengal. The Buddhist were now confined in the enclave of Bihar. However, when this province was conquered by the Mohammedans about 1198 A.D., Buddhism as a force in the society vanished from India.

It is said that Buddhism began to decline in India mainly because of the lack of royal patronage and foreign invasion.

Hinduism

Hinduism remained the dominant religion in India. It was patronized by most of the rulers. 

The prevalent forms of Hinduism were Vaishnavism and Saivism. Two characteristics of the religious life of the preceding period viz. toleration and worship of images continued in full force.

The worship of Siva seems to have been a general practice in early days. 

Great rulers like Sasanka and Harshavardhana, great poets like Kalidasa, Bhababhuti etc. all were ardent worshippers of Siva without probably belonging to any particular sect. 

By the 6th century A.D. Saivism had spread to the extreme south . Saiva sects also developed very rapidly. In the seventh century B.C. Hiuen Tsang found ‘Many professed Pasupatas’ as far west as Baluchistan. Varanasi was also a strong hold of the Saivas. It was adorned with many temples. 

In South India Saivism became very popular in 500 A.D. There were a large number of saiva saints, called Nayanars who greatly contributed to the growth of Saivism in South India. 

There were two other important Saiva sects, viz. 

Virasaivas and Lingayats, who gave great prominence to the Linga (phallus) and the Nandin or the Bull which is said to the vahana (vehicle) of Siva. 

The Saiva religion became popular in South India under the patronage of the Cholas. Magnificent temples and monastic establishments testify to its former grandeur. Even the Buddhist Pala kings of Bengal established Saiva temples. The Sena kings were professed Saivas.

Vaishnavism too made rapid progress in the post Gupta period. 

The incarnations (avatara) of Vishnu became very popular. 

The number and nature of these avatara are variously given in different treaties. Even Rishava (the first Tirthankara of Jainas) and Buddha came to be looked upon as avataras of Visnu. Of the other avataras Rama and Krishna alone still command a large number of followers.

Jainism

Jainism gained popularity among the trading classes in north and west India. 

In south India Jainism was patronized by the Chalukyas, Gangas and the Rastrakuta rulers. But from the 7th century A.D. Jainism began to decline in south India on account of the influence of Saivism and Vaishnavism. 

The Cholas and the Pandyas were bigoted Saivas and they are said to have persecuted the Jainas. However, unlike Buddhists, the Jainas had not disappeared in the land of their birth. 

Gujarat and Rajputana, their stong hold had suffered less from the invasions of Mohammedans.

Several Jain temples were built during the post Gupta period. The Jain doctrine of the four gifts (learning, food, medicine and shelter) helped to make Jainism popular among the people.

Tantricism

Tantricism became very popular during this period. 

Tantricism became stronger from the eight century onwards. It was strongest in eastern India. 

Tantric practice cantered on prayers, mystical formulae, magical diagrams and symbols and the worship of a particular deity. 

The worship of Mother Goddess occupied an important position in Tantricism.

Art

• The post Gupta period was undoubtedly a fruitful age. 
• Temple architecture testifies to the excellent skill of engineering. 
• The structural temples may be broadly divided into two classes viz. 
• North Indian style (Nagara) and south Indian style (Dravida)

The famous temples of Orissa are superb specimen of the north Indian style (Nagara). These temples consisted mainly of two parts, 

• The cella or sanctum roofed by the curvilinear sikhara, and 
• A mandapa or porch in front covered by a low pyramidal roof. 

The best example of this type is the great Lingaraja temple of Bhubanesvar and Sun temple of Konark. 

The temple of Jagannath at Puri is also another fine specimen. The Chandella rulers also greatly contributed to the field of temple architecture and built a series of temples at Khajuraho between 900 and 1150 A.D.

The art of sculpture suffered a great decline during the post Gupta age. However, the sculptures of eastern India during the Pala period show a fair degree of excellence. The sculptures of Orissa often reached a high slandered of excellence. The earlier Chola sculptures also maintained a very high level. Some of the bronze figures of Nataraja from south India may be regarded as the finest examples of sculptures of this age

Literature

• Literature reached its height during the post Gupta period. 
• The Rajput kings were great patron of literature. Some of the Rajput Kings were themselves authors of repute. 
• Raja Bhoja of Malwa was a famous author. Kalhana wrote ‘Rajatarangini’ dealing with the history of Kashmir. 
• Jayadeva, the poet-laureat of King Laksmana Sena of Bengal wrote the famous Gita Govinda’. 
• Bhavabhuti wrote Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramcharita . 
• Bharavi wrote Kiratarjuniyam. This period also saw the rise of Hindi, Rajasthani and Prakrit literature.
• Buildings, Paintings and Books
• Iron pillar – during the time of Chandra – Gupta.
• Stupas (mound) – Relic casket may contain bodily remains of the Buddha or his followers or the things they used. Pradakshina patha was laid around the stupa. (Eg: Sanchi, Amaravathi)

Cave temples.
Rock cut temples.

• Hindu temples: Garbhagriha = place where the image of the chief diety was placed. Shikara = tower made on the top of garbhagriha to mark this out as a sacred place. Mandapa = hall where people could assemble.
• Examples of early temples: Bhitargaon, UP (AD 500) – made of baked brick and stone, Mahabalipuram – monolithic temples, Aihole Durga temple (AD 600).
• PS: Association of ivory worked paid for one the beautiful gateways at Sanchi.
• Jain monastery in Orissa.
• Paintings – Ajanata caves – Buddhist monks.
• Books – Silappadikaram (by Ilango Adikal, AD 200) and Manimekalai (by Sattanar, AD 600), Meghaduta (by Kalidasa).
• Puranas – were meant to be heard by everybody. Believed to be compiled by Vyasa.
• Jataka and Panchatantra stories

Dynasties and their Founder

Dynasty	Founder
The Chalukyas Vatapi	Jayasimha
Gangas of Talakad	Konakaivarma
Guptas of Magadha	Shri Gupta
Kadambas of Vanavasi	Mayurasharman
Kingdom of Gaud	Shashanka
Kingdom of Thanwswar	Pushyabhuti
Later – Guptas of Magadha – Malwa	Krishnagupta
Maitrakas of Vallabhi	Bhattarka
Maukharis of Kannauj	Yajnavarman
Pallavas of Kanchi	Simhavarman
Pandyas of Madurai	Kodungon
Vakatakas	Vindhyashakti